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Germany’s energy and coal policy prospects – the implications of a National Sustainability Strategy

The National Sustainability Strategy has a remit to demonstrate ‘solutions and perspectives for a sustainable and futureproof Germany in the 21st century’. One of the twenty-one indicators used is that of ‘energy productivity’, which is to be increased twofold by the year 2010. The use of innovative technologies to improve energy efficiency is seen as one of the key elements in the energy supply sector.

The energy mix has to stay balanced and must also include indigenous coal, as any sustainable energy policy must also take account of energy supply security, competitiveness and social factors alongside its environmental objectives. Germany’s Kyoto obligations in respect of climate protection were reaffirmed, but any tightening of these measures after the target date, as part of a national ‘go-it-alone’ policy, was rejected.

On 17 April 2002 the Federal Government adopted the ‘National Sustainability Strategy’ under the title ‘Perspectives for Germany – our strategy for sustainable development’. This draws up a comprehensive set of principles for all Government departments and lays down twenty-one specific indicators and objectives for sustainable development that are aimed at identifying ‘solutions and perspectives for a sustainable and futureproof Germany in the 21st century’. At the same time the strategy constitutes Germany’s contribution to the World Summit on Sustainable Development that is due to be held in Johannesburg in late August/early September 2002 as part of the ‘Rio process’ and the global ‘Agenda 21’.

In the energy sector the sustainability strategy also follows a balanced approach that not only takes account of environmental and climate objectives but also seeks to achieve a high degree of security of supply and competitiveness. And here coal is to continue to play an important role for German energy supply. The Federal Government did not take up the vote of the ‘green lobby’, which during the sustainability debate engaged in a form of concerted ‘green action’ – from the Sustainability Advisory Panel via the Scientific Advisory Council for Global Climate Change to the Council of Experts for Environmental Issues – in calling for coal subsidies to be phased-out by 2010 for reasons of climate protection.
However this recommendation lacked any substantiation, as such a measure would gain nothing as far as the global CO2 balance was concerned – and in any case German coal’s contribution to this emissions balance has been declining for years and is at most only marginal. Moreover, German coal only accounts for about 8% of the country’s total CO2 emissions – well below the figure for both oil and gas. Without coal subsidies domestic coal would simply be replaced by imported fuel. Assuming the same utilisation technologies this would not mean any reduction in CO2 emissions per tonne of coal burnt (but would generate additional transport costs and therefore result in more fuel consumption). This only serves to demonstrate one thing: environment experts are nowhere near being energy experts.

Concerns and ‘coordinates’ for a sustainable development strategy.

In its 330-page sustainability strategy the Federal Government has identified as its key objective the need to establish “a satisfactory balance between the needs of the present generation and the prospects facing the generations to come”. Sustainability was therefore “more than a continuation of environmental policy by other means”. What was needed was an all-embracing “modernisation strategy" for industry and society that would have to run like a golden thread through every aspect of Government policy – from budget consolidation through tax reform, old-age provision, education, training and research to the three ‘priority’ action areas, namely environmental restructuring of agriculture and transport combined with a complete ‘energy turnaround’.
In respect of this final objective the sustainability strategy also contains as one of its key elements a ‘screenplay for a sustainable energy policy’, which has major implications for Germany’s energy and coal-policy prospects. At the same time the Federal Government provides answers to a number of essential questions relating to the future course of German energy policy, these having been brought to the debate by the energy report that was presented at the end of the previous year by the Federal Ministry of Economics (1). Before examining these issues in any detail it is first necessary to look briefly at the general orientations and features of the various national sustainability strategies in order to be able to make an overall assessment. The basic approach is that a sustainability model is established for all areas of policy which is based on the following four ‘coordinates’:

• equity between generations;
• quality of life;
• social cohesion and
• international responsibility.

‘Equity between generations’ means adopting a frugal approach to the management of natural resources and making greater efforts to boost energy efficiency (with specific reference to the ‘Factor 4’ and ‘Factor 10’ vision). ‘Quality of life’ refers to an intact environment along with safe towns and cities, good schools, opportunities for entrepreneurial initiative and a wide range of employment opportunities.
‘Social cohesion’ includes reorganising the economic structure in such a way that all opportunities existing in this area can be used to the full; in this way we can put an end to the social division created by poverty and social exclusion. ‘International responsibility’ means adopting a sustainability strategy and taking a global perspective on environmental protection, while at the same time stepping-up development cooperation and international peace-keeping efforts.

Political management concept – rules, indicators and objectives.

The model drawn up on the basis of these four coordinates will be used to produce a political management concept for sustainable development as part of an overall national sustainability strategy. This political management concept should be based on:

• General management rules.
• Indicators and objectives.
• Regular monitoring of performance.

The management rules are to be established on one ground rule and on ten special rules for the various ‘players’ and ‘action areas’. The ground rule states: “Each generation must resolve its own problems and should not burden future generations with them. Generations must also make provision for liabilities that are likely to accrue in the future. This applies to the preservation of natural resources, to economic development and to social cohesion and demographic change.” The following two rules apply to the various ‘players’ (quote):

• Citizens, producers and consumers, trade, industry and trade unions, the scientific community, churches and organisations are all key players – along with the state – in the area of sustainable development. These parties must become involved in the public dialogue on the model for sustainable development and must independently focus on these objectives in the decisions and measures that they take.
• Businesses will be responsible for their products and production levels. This includes providing consumers with information on the health and environmental aspects of their products and on sustainable production methods.

The consumer is to assume responsibility for selecting the products and for using them in a socially and ecologically responsible manner. The following eight management rules are to be applied to the individual ‘action areas’ (quote):

• renewable resources (such as timber and fish stocks) should in the long run only be used as a function of their regenerative capacity. Non-renewable resources (minerals and fossil fuels) should only be exploited on a scale that allows these commodities to be replaced over time by other materials or fuels. The release of emissions and energy should in the long run be kept within the capacity of the ecosystem – that is to say the climate, the forests and the oceans.
• Hazards and unjustifiable risks for human health are to be avoided.
• The structural change generated by technical development and international competition has to be economically viable as well as ecologically sustainable and socially acceptable. The different areas of Government policy also have to be integrated in such a way that economic growth, high employment, social cohesion and environmental protection all go hand in hand.
• Energy and resource consumption and transport performance have to be uncoupled from economic growth. Efforts also have to be taken to ensure that growth-related increases in the demand for energy, resources and transport performance are more than offset by efficiency gains.
• And public authorities are also under obligation to support the principle of equity between generations. The Federal Government, regional Governments and local authorities need to establish balanced budgets as soon as possible and ensure that debts are gradually paid off year on year.
• A sustainable agriculture policy needs to be eco-friendly and in tune with nature and must meet the requirements for humane animal husbandry and consumer (health) protection.
• In order to strengthen social cohesion
• we have to combat poverty and prevent social exclusion as far as possible.
• All strata of the population have to be given the opportunity to participate in economic development
• and all citizens should have the right to take part in social and political life.
• The international framework should be shaped in such a way that people in every country can live in proper conditions in line with their perceptions and can participate in economic growth and development. Global environment and economic development are inseparable.
• An integrated approach has to be adopted whereby combating poverty is linked to respect for human rights,
• economic development, protection of the environment
• and responsible government and management.

This programme can be implemented and developed by using the ’21 indicators for the 21st century’, which can also be used to monitor the progress of the operation. These few indicators can provide a rapid overview of sustainability-relevant trends and will be linked to tangible and quantifiable targets where the Federal Government considers this to be feasible and sensible (some examples from the energy sector are discussed below).

The twenty-one ‘sustainability’ indicators relate to the following developments:

• energy and raw-materials productivity;
• emissions of the six ‘Kyoto’ greenhouse gases;
• contribution of renewables to energy consumption;
• increase in living and traffic areas;
• increasing stocks of selected animal species;
• debit and credit balance of the state sector;
• investment ratio;
• private and public R&D expenditure;
• training for 25-year-olds and the intake of elementary students;
• GDP;
• transport density and the ratio of rail-based goods journeys;
• organic farming levels and the nitrogen balance in agriculture;
• air pollution;
• health satisfaction levels;
• number of house burglaries;
• employment activity rates;
• full-time care rates;
• ratio between annual salary levels of men and women;
• number of foreign school-leavers without qualifications;
• expenditure on development cooperation;
• EU imports from developing nations.

Like the choice of indicators and the establishment (or not) of certain target values, the question as to which criteria can be used to determine the correct balance between the ecological, economic and social dimensions of sustainability cannot of course be entirely objective or free from political judgement – and this has therefore been the object of criticism right from the start.

While SPD representatives praised the sustainability strategy in general as a “future programme for Germany” and a “centrepiece of socio-ecological reform”, the 90/Green alliance, the environmental groupings and the various bodies associated with them regarded it merely as an “important contribution on the road to sustainability” – for they would have preferred to see a much more ambitious set of objectives, especially in an ecological sense.
Representatives of the Union and FDP, on the other hand, expressed “sustained doubts” about the sustainability strategy. They were of the opinion that it had all been rushed through and complained about “conceptional chaos”. Yet they put forward no convincing or consistent alternatives of their own. They also complained about the lack of long-term environmental targets while at the same time bemoaning the fact that economic and social aspects had been subordinated to environmental objectives.

The Federal Government itself regarded the sustainability strategy “not as a finished product but as a long-term process in which the strategy is continuously updated and developed”. The first report on the progress of the national sustainability strategy is to be published in early 2004, with follow-up reports to be produced every two years. This will mainly focus on the contribution that state bodies and other parties (including the industrial community) have made to achieving the objectives laid down in the strategy, the changes identified by the twenty-one indicators and the conclusions that can be drawn for the further development of the strategy. The current status report seeks to present the need for action and to provide all parties with “a general political guideline in turbulent times”.

The Federal Government itself regarded the sustainability strategy “not as a finished product but as a long-term process in which the strategy is continuously updated and developed”. The first report on the progress of the national sustainability strategy is to be published in early 2004, with follow-up reports to be produced every two years. This will mainly focus on the contribution that state bodies and other parties (including the industrial community) have made to achieving the objectives laid down in the strategy, the changes identified by the twenty-one indicators and the conclusions that can be drawn for the further development of the strategy. The current status report seeks to present the need for action and to provide all parties with “a general political guideline in turbulent times”.

In its sustainability strategy the Federal Government is expressly in favour of “combining energy and environmental objectives”. However, it has distanced itself from the position adopted by various parties, and especially the Greens and environmental groups, which are calling for a unilateral 40% cut in Germany’s CO2 emissions by 2020. The unpredictable and potentially serious economic and social consequences of such a one-sided reduction scenario, as outlined by the Federal Ministry of Economics in its Energy Report (2), were crucial to this decision.

In its sustainability strategy, however, the Federal Government does acknowledge the national obligations resulting from the Kyoto Protocol and calls for greater national and international efforts to be made towards global climate protection, over and above the measures already agreed-to, so that the environmental commitments of the industrialised states can be made “even more rigorous”. The Government was also prepared to “continue to play its pioneering role in developing and implementing an ambitious environmental policy”.

“In view of the global nature of the climate problem” – to quote directly from the sustainability strategy – “the Federal Government is however aware of the fact that it cannot be resolved by an independent initiative.” What is really needed in terms of both substance and public acceptance of the impact of additional climate-policy instruments in Germany is “an EU-wide strategy that is also agreed as widely as possible at international level.” The USA had to be brought back into the Kyoto process and emission limits also had to be agreed for the developing countries. Before Germany commits itself to further obligations after 2012 the Government expects “other industrialised states to commit themselves to equally ambitious targets so that German industry is not put at a disadvantage among the international competition”.

The document also highlights the environmental progress made to date. Compared with most other countries Germany was “well on the way” to meeting its Kyoto commitments (to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions by 21% by 2008/2012 against the reference year 1990). An 18% reduction had in fact already been achieved by the year 2000, while CO2 emissions per head of population had also fallen by the same amount. Germany had also made great advances in reducing the other greenhouse gases (including methane emissions, which were down by more than 36 %).

By 2000 the EU as a whole had only cut greenhouse-gas emissions by 4%, although when Germany’s contribution is taken out of the equation these emissions in fact rose by 1.3%. The Federal Government also points out that under the EU burden-sharing arrangements some of the member states are actually allowed to increase their emission levels. Germany, on the other hand, has committed itself at EU level to cut emissions by 254 million tonnes CO₂-equivalent – which represents 76%, or three quarters, of the total EU quota for emission reductions agreed at Kyoto. According to the sustainability strategy the aim of any future German climate policy must be “to maintain and continue the trend” of the emission reductions achieved to date. One of the most important elements here was to continue the recent trend reversal towards lower emission levels achieved in the transport sector. It was also important to tap into the potential for emission reduction on the demand side, namely households and small consumers. Furthermore, there was still considerable scope for further emission cuts to be made in industry and in the energy supply sector.
According to the sustainability strategy priority essentially had to be given to individual responsibility in the deployment of the instruments. Agreements reached with industry on voluntary undertakings helped mobilise the creativity and commitment of the companies concerned and provided scope for new solutions. Given the success that has already been achieved the environmental agreement reached between the Federal Government and German industry confirms that this is the right road to take. State intervention should only be needed in those cases where individual responsibility has not yielded the agreed results or where market performance does not meet the Government targets.

Emissions trading.

The introduction of an emissions trading scheme has long been discussed as a further development of climate policy. In October 2001 the European Commission presented a proposal for a directive that focussed on CO2 emissions and on just a few selected sectors. According to the sustainability strategy an emissions trading scheme “if properly formulated can be an ecologically effective and economically efficient instrument and can help achieve the EU’s emission-reduction targets in a manner that is both affordable and compatible with economic growth”. However it goes on to say that because of the many problems still unresolved the present proposal for a directive still called for “careful consultation and a cautious approach”. From the Federal Government’s point of view “emissions trading should for the moment not be introduced on a compulsory basis but should initially be tried out voluntarily as part of a pilot scheme”.
This extremely reserved assessment by the Federal Government can be attributed to the serious reservations that German industry and the German energy supply utilities and coal sector have expressed about the proposed EU directive. This is confirmed in the sustainability strategy: Depending on its method of formulation an emissions trading scheme for greenhouse gases can have “far-reaching economic repercussions …. In particular there may be distortions of competition between individual sectors and member states and between EU countries and non-EU states. It also has to be borne in mind that to date we have no experience in operating an emissions trading system with greenhouse gases. There are significant problems to be resolved as far as the legal implementation of such a system is concerned (especially when it comes to the initial distribution of the trading permits, which must be equitable and also has to be carried out in accordance with the constitution and with the regulations for state aid).”
The Federal Government is also calling for the proposed EU emissions-trading arrangements to be made compatible with other climate-policy instruments and to be tied into the other flexible Kyoto instruments that are to be set up (JI and CDM). Furthermore, “the environmental efforts already initiated since 1990 are to be fully taken into account”. – Otherwise Germany’s pioneering role would have been in vain.

Energy-supply security and competitiveness.

The sustainability strategy states that “the provision of energy is essential for prosperity and is therefore a pre-requirement for a high quality of life. Whether it be manufacturing, transport or the provision of heat for buildings – energy is needed everywhere”. The strategy also refers to the enormous disparity in the worldwide distribution of energy consumption. While the industrialised countries have 25% of the world’s population, they account for about 75% of global energy use. At the same time “two billion people have no access to commercial energy supplies, with the result that many are forced to use energy sources in an extremely inefficient way and this pollutes the air, destroys the forests and promotes desertification”.

Growth and development, economic performance and quality of life, along with the eradication of global poverty, “requires a reliable and affordable supply of energy”. The sustainability strategy therefore has “a long-term remit to apply parity of treatment in meeting the objectives of competitiveness, careful management of the environment and natural resources, which includes cutting emissions, and security of energy supply”. When viewed on a global scale, however, today’s energy supply system is not compatible with the model for sustainable development. The strategy refers to the huge environmental and climate problems being generated by the energy sector worldwide and to the “erosion” of energy resources through the dominant use of fossil fuels, even though these “will have to continue to bear the main burden of energy supply for the foreseeable future”. Nuclear power was not sustainable because of its specific environmental risks and, most importantly, because it would leave behind highly-problematic radioactive waste for thousands of years to come – and this ran counter to the principle of equity between generations. The phasing-out of nuclear power in Germany, an agreement that was currently being implemented by the Federal Government, is again reaffirmed in the sustainability strategy.
Renewable energies, on the other hand, are seen as “cornerstones” of a sustainable energy supply for the future provided that they are developed in a manner that is “compatible with Nature and the environment” (the economic aspects are not examined). Expanding renewables’ usage not only helps protect the climate but also reduces dependence on imported energy. This could be tied into the developments of previous years in which Germany has witnessed a strong upsurge – especially in the field of wind power, solar energy and biomass use (albeit from a low starting point and on a fairly modest level when set against conventional fuels). The renewable-resources sector is considered to have a huge potential. A large-scale pilot project has now been launched to exploit offshore wind energy as part of the national sustainability strategy. In developing the renewables sector the Federal Government is taking efforts to set targets that are both ambitious and realistic. In its sustainability strategy it is re-affirming the objective agreed-to at EU level, namely to double renewable energy’s contribution to both primary energy consumption and power generation in Germany by 2010, as measured against the reference year 2000 (this means extending renewables’ usage to 4% and 12% respectively). As a long-term objective for the “middle of the century” renewables will then “meet about half of total energy consumption”. This will produce benchmark values for the period 2010 to 2050 – though these are not quantified. The converse conclusion to be reached here is that more than half of the remaining energy needs will still have to be met by fossil fuels for the next fifty years at least, which means that fossil resources will continue to be the mainstay of the energy supply industry – both in Germany and elsewhere in the world – for the foreseeable future. The ‘Energy chapter’ of the sustainability strategy discusses in some detail the life expectancy of the world’s energy reserves. Technically and economically recoverable reserves, when seen from today’s perspective, are estimated to be about 100 times larger than annual energy consumption. While according to the “static scenario” (that is to say at present consumption levels) recoverable oil reserves are currently thought to have the shortest life expectancy of all the fossil fuels, namely 42 years, gas supplies are only expected to run down in about 65 years time and coal reserves will not start to run out for another 170 years. What is more, uranium will only be available for another fifty years or so. If additional known and assumed resources are factored into the equation the life-spans for oil and uranium – on the basis of current consumption levels – would be extended to an estimated 200 years, while coal would last for more than 300 years. The sustainability strategy goes on to point out, however, that even assuming such a “dynamic scenario” mankind will still be basing his wealth and prosperity on a massive “erosion” of natural assets, for the energy that the Earth took thousands or millions of years to accumulate can now be consumed by man in a mere 12 months. The strategy goes on to highlight other policy conflicts as far as security of energy supply is concerned. For example, while renewables are for the most part free of CO2 and are therefore eco-friendly, they do depend to some extent on natural fluctuations (wind and solar energy). This means that they cannot constitute a permanent and reliable source of supply. While replacing indigenous coal with imported gas would certainly cut CO2 emissions at home, it would at the same time increase our reliance on imported energy and create huge economic problems in the coalfield communities. It is also pointed out elsewhere that when this sector is seen in its entirety even the environmental benefits of gas have to be put into perspective in terms of losses that can be incurred during production, transport and processing, for this fuel increasingly has to be imported from outside the EU and over huge distances. However, the specific supply and price risks associated with imported gas are not directly discussed. The sustainability strategy does however refer to the general risks presented by a high dependence on imported energy and price fluctuations on the world energy markets. Clearly, the German economy is now much less sensitive to energy price swings than in the 1970s and early 1980s; this can mainly be attributed to the fact that the one-sided reliance on oil has now been lessened, particularly through the use of indigenous coal for electricity generation. Nevertheless, Germany’s dependence on imported energy has again returned to a high level and now stands at 60% or more – well above the EU average of 50%. Current predictions indicate that the reliance of Germany and the EU on imports will increase significantly in the next twenty to thirty years (EU-wide the figure is expected to reach 70%). Germany’s import quota for some fuels is in fact already much higher than this (gas 80%; oil nearly 100%). Against this background it would be both problematic and risky for Germany – the sustainability strategy warns – if the power generation market, like the heat market and transport sector, were to be made reliable on just a few imported fuels.

"A high degree of security of supply is therefore one of the key objectives of a sustainable energy policy.”

In this context the preservation of a diversified energy mix assumes great importance, especially in the power generation sector. Germany would “therefore continue to rely on a balanced energy mix of oil, gas, coal and lignite, plus renewables. Such a fuel mix, which would include indigenous coal, could keep supply and price risks within acceptable levels”. However, as the sustainability strategy itself stresses, this does not mean “that the current market share enjoyed by the different fuels should be set in stone”.
Government guidelines, such as those relating to emission reduction targets, along with various individual economic decisions taken within a decentralised society, would combine to make such a formula impossible – especially under the conditions of a deregulated European energy market (such a market is not being called into question but it does require a much more level playing field) or in the event of renewed shortages in the global energy markets. There is no doubt that these guidelines are both correct and appropriate, and yet for the same reason it is difficult to set quantified targets (and other indicators for sustainable development) for the extension of renewable energy sources. In its sustainability strategy the Federal Government itself points out that in addition to security of energy supply economic viability “also plays an important role” – and this factor has an important social dimension: "Supplying energy that is as affordable as possible is, in both economic and social terms, one of the objectives of a sustainable energy policy. For energy-intensive and internationally-active industries energy prices therefore constitute an important competitive factor. All layers of society are reliant on having an affordable supply of energy for heating, hot water and mobility. This social dimension of energy supply has to be taken into account when drawing up a sustainable energy policy.
“What is more, the sustainability strategy provides protection from a primarily or completely demand-driven policy, as is sometimes propagated by the Greens. Clearly we need to support an environmentally conscious and energy-saving approach on the demand side of the energy market (by providing better information and advice to consumers along with effective incentives), but at the same time Germany must maintain its ability to attract “appropriate investment in power station capacity and in the infrastructure required by the energy supply sector ..., so that jobs can be safeguarded in the longer term and the existing high level of technical know-how exploited and developed further”. – Here, as in other areas, we have to ensure that the different energy-policy objectives and potential conflicts of interest are “carefully balanced and coordinated as far as possible”.

Key factor for improved energy efficiency.

The national sustainability strategy assigns ‘improved energy efficiency’ a “key position” in future energy policy. Improved energy efficiency not only protects the climate and environment but also helps safeguard our finite resources. At the same time it reduces our dependence on imported energy and on the associated price risks and cuts the energy-cost burden on companies, thereby strengthening their competitiveness. Even private consumers are now increasingly demanding products with a lower energy requirement. Emphasis is placed on the fact that Germany leads the industrialised world in energy efficiency. Since 1991 the country has achieved an average 1.9% improvement in energy efficiency year on year, which is significantly higher than the European average of 1.1%. As a result, energy productivity in Germany rose by nearly one quarter during the period 1990 to 2000, which means that nearly 25% more economic output was produced for the same energy input. This clearly demonstrates that energy consumption can be successfully de-coupled from economic growth. The aim is to double energy productivity in Germany by 2020 as measured against the reference year 1990 – and this is one of the twenty-one indicators of the sustainability strategy that has a definite target to achieve.
Modernisation of the electricity generation industry, including “cutting-edge coal-fired power stations” (the example cited is that of the Schwarze Pumpe lignite-fired plant, whose 41% efficiency rate is much higher than that of conventional lignite power stations) and the extension of combined heat and power installations (by way of the new Co-generation Act and the broader commitments undertaken by industry), is to play an important role. There is also a huge potential for further efficiency improvements in the way we use energy – this includes the transport sector, household appliances and the building and construction industry. In this context the fuel cell is classified as a “highly efficient future technology” for energy recovery and utilisation and this system is soon to be promoted in a targeted development project under the provisions of the sustainability strategy. As fuel-cell technology, which uses hydrogen, gas or methanol, is capable of generating heat and power very efficiently and with minimum emissions, the Federal Government believes that this system could “permanently change energy supply in the future”. The fuel cell would gradually bring about a decentralisation of electricity supplies for households, industry and public facilities and could be used in the transport sector too. The ‘Virtual power station’ pilot project, which is to be funded by the Future Investment Programme (ZIP), seeks to promote practical schemes for testing integrated fuel-cell units designed to supply heat and power to homes and manufacturing premises. The pilot project will also promote demonstration initiatives in the transport sector (the fuel cell-powered bus). Further innovative efforts aimed at the efficient use of energy resources also involve the introduction of future technologies that could well further the cause of sustainable development in energy; this is why they are to be supported by the Government’s energy policy under the R&D promotion scheme and through a forthcoming ‘Market incentive programme for rational energy use’. In this particular area the national sustainability strategy also refers to the benefits of ‘clean coal technology’.

by:
Dr rer.oec. Kai van de Loo, GVSt (German Hard Coal Association), Essen. Glückauf 138 (2002) no. 7/8.

References
1. Hufschmied, Peter; van de Loo, Kai: Energy report of the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology: sustainable energy policy for a future-proof energy supply – scenarios and energy-policy conclusions. In: Glückauf 138 (2002), No. 4, pp. 167-174.

2. Energy report of the Federal Ministry of Economics, Berlin, 2001, pp. 171f.